Cult and cult leader Essay Example for Free

Cult and cult leader Essay Cult† is a term used to describe certain religious groups outside of the mainstream of Western religion. A cut leader is non-Christian but has roots in Christianity while denying what he considered its essential teaching or can be one who follows an altogether different religious structure, one foreign and alien to the prevalent religious communities . in the in the case of the latter cults represent a force of religious innovation within a culture. In most cases that innovation comes about by the transplantation of a religion from a different culture by the immigration of some of its members and leaders. Others described cults as groups which hypnotized or brainwashed recruits, destroyed their ability to make rational judgments and turned them into slaves of the groups leader, as by the above definition Healter was cult leader since he practiced and allowed some of these practices which are associated with cult leaders ; Members swear total allegiance to an all-powerful leader who they believe to be the Messiah, rational thought is discouraged or forbidden, the cults recruitment techniques are often deceptive, the cult weakens the follower psychologically by making him or her depend upon the group to solve his or her problems, the cults manipulate guilt to their advantage, the cult leader makes all the career and life decision of the members, cults exist only for their own material survival and make false promises to work to improve society, cult members often work fulltime for the group for little or no pay, cults are apocalyptic and believe themselves to be the remnant who will sur vive the soon-approaching end of the world. There are many things condick david crashed with the gorverment on appointment post also on issues facing religion. Reference: 1. Elmer Clarks pioneering survey of the Small Sects in America (1949) . .

Market Entry Strategy Which Is Appropriate In Circumstances Marketing Essay

Market Entry Strategy Which Is Appropriate In Circumstances Marketing Essay INTRODUCTION: The assignment explains that if any firm goes into the international market then what are various types of entry modes and then what can be the various entry strategies. Axinn (2002), state that firms nowadays are enter into international markets much more than before. Therefore, theories regarding globalization that provide realistic mentoring is more significant than it have been discussed in six stages by Kotler Armstrong (2001): Looking at the international environment Deciding whether to go in international market or not Deciding which markets to go in Deciding how to enter in the market Look critically global marketing program, and Deciding on a global market organization Reference: Axinn, C.N Matthyssens, P (2002) Limits of Internationalization theories in an unlimited world. International Marketing Review 19(5), p436-449. Kotler, P., Armstrong, G. (2001). Principles of marketing 9th Ed. Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall International. DEFINITION OF MARKET ENTRY STRATEGY: According to Green (1995), In literature there is no agreement regarding managerial decision which constitute an entry strategy. Strategy is defined as the firms consistent internal set of objectives and procedures or policies and goals, which support the organizations strengths and weaknesses with the outer opportunities and threats. In other words, if a firms internal variables will be coordinated with external environment to achieve superior performance it shows firms effective strategy is in place. A market entry strategy is formulated a firms decision in regards to organization, market and product before the actual launch of product. Market entry strategies are essential for existence of new firms as they are on the desire path right from the beginning exclusive of differing from their objectives. Several studies revealed that successful launch strategy raise the possibility of firm survival and better performance. According to Sandberg and Hofer (1987), In contrast to any other variables effect of strategy, entrepreneur and structure of industry impact more on performance. The market entry strategy is particularly significant, as it choose number of strategic and planned substitute to the firm in future. We take market entry in a very slow and steady manner because there is lots of risk. Doing business internationally is altogether different from doing business in domestic market. Reference: Green Donna H./Barclay, Donald W./Ryans, Adrian B. (1995), Entry Strategy and Long-Term Performance: Conceptualization and Empirical Examination, in: Journal of Marketing, Vol. 59, pp. 1-16. Sandberg, William R./Hofer, Charles W. (1987), Improving New Venture Performance: The Role of Strategy, Industry Structure, and the Entrepreneur, in: Journal of Business Venturing, Vol. 2, pp. 5-28. FOREIGN MARKET ENTRY MODES: There are different modes in which a domestic firm enters into a international market or the international arena. INTERNATIONAL ENTRY COMPENDIUM Export By Agent/ Distributor Licensing Arrangement Joint Venture Foreign Manufacturing Franchising Arrangement Opening Overseas Office We have almost six types of modes through which we can enter into the international business. Exports through agents or distributors. Opening overseas office. Licensing arrangement. Franchising arrangement. Joint Ventures. Foreign manufacturing. EXPORTS THROUGH AGENTS OR DISTRIBUTORS: We appoint foreign agents in foreign countries and we start getting the business queries from them, this will be the type of process called as doing business through agent. OPENING OVERSEAS OFFICE: Once we are getting business through the agents now we can think in terms of opening our overseas office. So therefore entering into the international markets by opening our own office will further give a push to our sales in that particular country because we have a local presence and we can answer the queries of the overseas buyer. If we can keep our buyers happy we got a position to get more and more sales. LICENSING ARRANGEMENT: If we are already successful in a particular international country, our brands are very popular in that market. Now, we can move out of that particular market by allowing local firm of that particular country to enter into a type of arrangement called licensing arrangement. We give a license to that particular company to start manufacturing our product using our brand name and the technology, but all the investment are made by that particular party, and in lieu if this licensing we are allowed to that foreign company we get the royalty. It means when we are in position to get royalty again we are in a position to have sales in that particular country. We enter into licensing arrangement because we want to enter into some other market to expand our market size. FRANCHISING ARRANGEMENT: It is the arrangement where we identify the type of franchisee who basically interested to take our franchise so this is an arrangement between franchiser and franchisee. Franchisee: The party that is purchasing the franchise from the seller of the franchise. Franchiser: The party that is offering the franchise for sale to the purchaser of the franchise. Franchiser is a export firm who is trying to give its marketing rights to local firm in that country as well as helping that firm in terms of all types of business problems in exchange for a fee. In licensing we take royalty and in franchising we take fee. It is the basic difference between licensing and franchise. Idea is again the same we want to expand our market scope so therefore in certain countries rather than locally produce product in that country we enter into franchising arrangement. McDonalds is the same example of franchising. JOINT VENTURES: Once we have lots of experience and we have accumulated lots of resources we can also enter into certain countries in the form of strategic alliances, these alliances has given a name called joint venture. Joint venture is the type of equity participation. We have so many examples of joint ventures which are already takes place in India. Like joint venture of Hero Honda, there are two companies hero group is the Indian group and Honda group which is from Japan. FOREIGN MANUFACTURING: The company starts manufacturing their product in foreign countries. It means instead of manufacturing product in their own country and then exporting from their and paying the custom duty out there, the foreign firms can think of go out of there country and if they found that the government of that country is promoting industrial investment than they are in position to get the land, and other resources in the terms of finance etc. as well as lots of benefits from the government of that country and then they start local manufacturing in that country and without any type of the partner but on their own. It is also called FDI (Foreign Direct Investment). Reference: Internet WWW page at URL: Foreign market entry modes Quickmba.com. Accessed 08/04/10 from FACTORS INFLUENCING THE CHOICE OF MARKET ENTRY MODE: Several important factors that affect the choice of entry modes are: Market Factors: The size of the target country market is significantly influence on the entry mode. Small market have low break even sales volume so the entry mode must be different (Agent/distributor exporting, licensing and some contractual arrangements). For Markets with high sales potential have entry mode that have high break even sales volume (Branch, subsidiary, exporting and equity investment in local production). Production Factors: Entry mode are largely affected by production factors of targeted country like quality, quantity and cost of raw materials, labors and energy. Economic Factors: Economic infrastructure (Transportation, communication, port facilities etc) also affect the mode of entry into particular country or market. Government Regulations: Defensive Import regulations affect in the form of high tariffs, these regulations make problems an export entry. Geographical Factors: When geographically the distance to the targeted market is too long then cost of transportation becomes a barrier. Dynamism of Country: Economic dynamism of the country also affect the entry mode. Dynamism refers to the rate of investment, growth rate and personal income. Social Cultural Factors: Social and cultural factors are very wide that affect entry mode because of different values language, social structure and different life style of target market country to home country. Reference: Root, F.R (1994). Entry Strategies for international Markets: San Francisco: Jossey Bass Inc. CONCLUSION: For an Organizations or a company thinking of entry into the international arena set of strategic alternatives often changing and depending on the targeted country or market focuses on several ways to enter a foreign market. Organization need to be conscious of how prospective new market may best by still considering the risk and the different economic ,environmental and cultural factors associated with the specific entry strategy (Deresky, 2003). Reference: Deresky, H.(2003). International Management 4th Ed. Pearson Education. (B) Franchising is a common method of entering services markets abroad. What is the special attraction of international franchising to both partners? FRANCHISE: Franchise is a form of business organization in which a company which already has a successful product or service (the franchisor) enters into a continuing contractual relationship with other businesses (franchisees) operating under the franchisors trade name and usually with the franchisors direction, in exchange for a fee. (InvestorWords.com, 2009) Reference: Internet WWW page at URL: Franchise InvestorWords.com, 2009. Accessed 6 August 2009 from BUSINESS FORMAT FRANCHISING: Business format franchising, on the other hand, is defined as an arrangement where a franchisee receives (in addition to the right to sell goods or services) the franchisors designs, quality control and accounting systems, operating procedures, group advertising and promotions, training, and (in case of hotels and travel agencies) worldwide reservation system. (BusinessDictionary.com, 2009). In short, franchising the business format allows small and medium scale franchisees to enjoy economies of scale, brand recognition and loyalty, and strategic support from a large and established franchisor. In return, the franchisor receives a fee for the use of its tradename, trademarks and expertise. More than that, however, the franchisor is able to expand its reach and name recognition with use of the capital investment of the franchisee. Reference: Internet WWW page at URL: Business Format Franchising BusinessDictionary.com, 2009. Accessed 6 August 2009 from INTERNATIONAL MARKET ENTRY STRATEGY: A business format franchise, from its very definition, is designed to replicate the totality of the franchisors business concept in different location; if the franchise is multinational, then the different locations may well be situated in different countries. More than just the trademarks and product design, the business format franchise makes use of the franchisors marketing strategy and plan, operating manuals and standards, and quality control. (Preble and Hoffman, 1995, p. 80) Growth in this area has been so predominant that it is forecasted to be the main (if not nearly exclusive) form of franchising internationally in the 21st century. Business format franchising has become the main vehicle by which multinational business have been able to take advantage of the unprecedented growth of international opportunities. (Preble and Hoffman, 1995, p. 80) There are, according to Preble and Hoffman (2006) three generic approaches or experiences in global franchising strategies: the first mover, platform, and conversion approaches. The first- and early-mover strategies are those strategies which suggest that early entrants into the industry, or pioneers, attain market dominance (i.e., traditionally enjoy larger market shares) over their competitors who arrive later. For this strategy, the timing of market entry is of greatest importance to the success of the franchise. Preble and Hoffman cite Makadok (1998) as a study that such advantages in pricing and share advantage indeed materialize, and are of surprisingly longstanding (or sustainable) duration. First movers exhibit a greater aggressiveness in pursuing strategic investments in research and development, advertising, promotion and distribution. It was determined that Franchisors facing domestic market saturation and rapidly growing markets abroad are more likely to utilize first-mover strategies for international expansion. (Preble Hoffman, 2006, p. 36). The second category of global franchising strategies is that of platform strategies. This involves selecting the most ideal (or at least most advantageous, usually the most business-friendly) country in a region and establishing its platform in that country first, and then eventually expanding into neighboring nations. It is also called an incremental phased approach (Gupta Govindarajan, 2000). This is ideal for expansion into regions wherein the countries comprising the region differ in their levels of organizational development, political stability and cultural traits (Preble Hoffman, 2006, p.39) Situating in a business-friendly country helps to minimize the risk of entry into a region which may either not be open to the companys presence there, or that do not possess the infrastructure and facilities needed for business to flourish. It is recommended that entry into dissimilar markets should be attempted or undertaken only by experienced franchisors. The last classification of strategies for business format franchising is known as conversion strategies. This involves the franchisor adding new franchisees to the network through the acquisition of independent businesses, business chains, or franchisees from other franchise systems in short, it is a process similar to reverse franchising. The business already exists; the business format franchisor merely converts these existing establishments to include them in the franchisors own system. Conversion franchising is best suited to the penetration of mature and already crowded and costly markets, by acquiring existing locations, sometimes in prime, expensive, real estate, eliminating competitors, and benefit from the franchisees existing business network and connections. The franchisor could also take advantage of the franchisees critical resources and skills from which can be developed sources of competitive advantages. The acquired firm, on the other hand, benefits from a source of managerial acumen from the franchisor, aside from the acquisition of a known brand, new technology, logistical support and training. In summarizing these strategies, it is readily apparent that conversion strategies provides the greatest opportunity for not only experienced but also inexperienced franchisors to penetrate international markets and expand operations even in saturated and highly competitive business environments. Reference: Preble, J F Hoffman, R C (1995) Franchising Systems Around the Globe: A Status Report Journal of Small Business Management, Apr95, Vol. 33 Issue 2, p80-88. Preble, J F Hoffman, R C (2006) Strategies for Business Format Franchisors to Expand into Global Markets. Journal of Marketing Channels, Vol. 13 Issue 3, p29-50. The diagram on the page following illustrates the three generic strategies just described. A Contingency Model for Global Franchising Strategies (Source: Preble Hoffman, 2006, p. 45) Reference: Preble, J F Hoffman, R C 2006 Strategies for Business Format Franchisors to Expand into Global Markets. Journal of Marketing Channels, Vol. 13 Issue 3, p29-50. ATTRACTION FOR INTERNATIONAL FRANCHISING: There is some special attraction for both the franchiser and franchisee thats why franchising has been famous around for decades. It is a great approach for business man to hold and drive own business. Same like that it is attractive for the second party in term of operating a business in new environment because they do not have know how of market, cultural and other political and social condition of that particular country. Franchisee should have to do some homework, research the company, and should consult with a franchise consultant before making a final commitment. Franchiser has to do the same research about the countrys political condition, possible social and cultural issues, credibility and previous working experience of the franchisee in the related field. Here are some of the advantages for both the partners in franchising business. LOWER FAILURE RATE: When franchising business is setup there are very low chances to failure of business because franchisee is using the name and fame of the already established organization. On the other hand, franchiser uses the experience and knowledge about the local market, which is very essential for survival of any organization. Independent businesses have 70% to 80% chance of failure in the initial critical years while franchising business has 80% chance of surviving. HELP WITH START UP AND BEYOND: Franchisee got lots of help on initial stages of business and operating it afterwards. Most of the franchisee gets all the apparatus, supplies and instruction or even training which is very essential to start the business. In most of the cases, franchisee gets constant training and help with marketing and management. Franchisee will reap the benefits of the companys international marketing campaigns, while the franchiser get benefit in terms of finance by entering into new market. BUYING POWER: Your franchise will gain from the combined buying power of the International Company as the franchisor can manage to pay in bulk and go by the investments along to franchisees. Stock and materials will cost less than if you were operating an independent company. STAR POWER: Most of the well-known franchises have international brand name and recognition. Getting a franchise can be similar to buying a business with built-in consumers. PROFITS: A franchise business can be hugely beneficial and profitable. (Think of McDonalds and KFC, for instance.) Reference: Internet WWW page at URL: Attraction For International Franchising sbinfocanada.about.com, Assessed 10 April 2010 from

A Garden for the Blind :: Architecture Design Essays

A Garden for the Blind In â€Å"Dimensions of Creativity† in The Rise of the Creative Class, Richard Florida makes note of the dramatic changes seen in the modern world’s society contrasted with society during the 1950’s. Florida delves into the more conspicuous aspects of these analogous societies and makes mention of how at first the differences between them to not seem that dissimilar at first glance. Technology, modern medicine, and other realms remained more or less the same when compared to society in the early 1900’s. What strikes the change between the 1950’s and today as â€Å"bewilderingly different† is the existing social order along with its norms and values. The driving force of this dramatic social change, taking place within the last 50 years, has been the rise of creativity which has instated itself in our economy and society, as it values creativity as well as creative impulse. Creativity in today’s world is continual and widespread. Technological creativity and economical creativity have interacted with artistic and cultural creativity to produce a â€Å"creative ethos† that compels our society through its dynamic transformation. Through the development of these creative elite in our society we are also met with a responsibility to the rest of humanity, to guide and direct them throughout the course of their lives. This must be applied especially to those who are disadvantaged and cannot take care of themselves adequately. Through innovation and design, their needs can be met so that they may harness a sense of belonging in the world. The land located immediately south of the Hume Hall Honors Residential housing consists of approximately one or two acres encircled by a number of trees, all of which is on a slope when looking at the topography of the land. A proposal has been made to build a garden for the blind on this sector of land. Different types of plants and natural resources would be installed into this area in the creation of this garden that would require the use of sensory functions other than just sight or vision. An important bodily function or sense must be greatly considered when dealing with the blind is their sense of touch. In the book Sensory Design, authors Joy Malnar and Frank Vodvarka describe haptic perception, which they quote from James J. Gibson, as â€Å"a sense of touch that includes temperature, pain pressure, and kinesthesia encompassing both body sensation and muscle movement.

MARKET ANALYSIS :: essays research papers

MARKET ANALYSIS Excalibur is faced with the exciting opportunity of being the first-mover in the restaurant sport bar market. The consistent popularity of female achievements, combined with the growing interest in female sports, has been proven to be a winning concept in other markets and will produce the same results in Atlanta. Market Segmentation We see Excalibur as appealing to three major market segments. Fortunately, the long, late night hours of operation will help Excalibur lend itself to multiple segment appeal. Our market segmentation scheme allows some room for estimates and nonspecific definitions. 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  College Students--By creating an environment that is appealing to college students, we secure a natural progression between the student and the young professional. Through word of mouth, Excalibur expects an increase of five percent annually from this segment. 2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Tourists and Business Travelers--More and more business and travelers and tourists are finding themselves in Atlanta every year as is made evident by the increased demand and subsequent expansion of the local airport. We plan to reach these people through direct marketing to local hotel patrons. We anticipate a 20% annual growth rate in this segment. As our relationships grow with the local hotels, so too will the word of mouth recommendations from the hotel staff as well as the patronizing of our sports bar by their families and friends. Our future plan is to publish a simple website in order to create awareness to any traveler who wants to take an advanced look at the club before their visit. 3.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Young Professionals--Due to our proximity to the downtown and midtown area, we must appeal to female adults. Whether it is a group of friends out to see a movie together or a woman who want to just go out and relax, these people need a place to eat/drink either before and/or after their movie. These customers will range in age from 27 to 40. Excalibur will appeal to this category by switching the tempo and entertainment to be more appealing to adults as it gets later into the evening. We also anticipate a 15% annual growth rate in tandem with the growth rate of Atlanta and through increased popularity. The following chart and table outline the target market segments for Excalibur, and include annual growth projections. Potential Customers   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Growth   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  2002   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  2003   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  2004   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  2005   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  CAGR   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Young Professionals   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  15%   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  151,800   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  174,570   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  200,756   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  230,869   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  15.00%   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   College Students   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  5%   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  105,000   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  110,250   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  115,763   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  121,551   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  5.00%   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Tourists/Business Travelers   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  20%   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  120,000   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  144,000   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  172,800   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  207,360   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  20.

Cultural Considerations in Moral and Ethical Reasoning

Cultural considerations in moral and ethical reasoning The sound development of moral reasoning and ethics is an integral part of the growth and maturation of a healthy and productive human being. Without morals and ethics, a person cannot exist within society’s boundaries and would be doomed to be forever barred from its hallowed walls for as long as that person did not conform to the societal norms of having the ability to morally reason and implement a set of ethics. But morals and ethics, as necessary as they are, are relative and not absolute (Brink, 1989).This means that what a particular society constitutes as moral behavior is actually very much like beauty and in the eye of the beholder. The society in which an individual grows up in and is a member of dictates the type of societal rules that must be accepted as part of the price of membership. However, it does not take into account the various cultural differences that must affect which ethics and morals are adhered to in a particular place. Ethics are generally defined as the principles of morally acceptable conduct of individuals, and a person’s belief about right and wrong behaviors (Cosmides & Tooby, 2004).It is evident however, that the difference in cultures around the world make it quite clear that moral reasoning and ethics are directly influenced by the cultures in which they are developed (Boyd & Richerson, 2005). Behavior that is unacceptable in the U. S. is perfectly acceptable elsewhere in the world. For example, polygamy is accepted in most African societies, and even encouraged, but in the U. S. it is not only considered morally reprehensible, but also criminal. Homosexuality is accepted and even celebrated in the U. S. et woe betides the person trying to engage in this behavior in the Middle East, where it is considered a moral abomination (Haidt & Hersh, 2001). It is clear that there is no universal standard for moral reasoning not with culture, religion, and even environment playing roles in how it will occur (Wright, 1994).Therefore, it is of utmost importance to teach developing humans how to evaluate critically their own views on morality and that of others in order to preserve a balance in their world view no matter where they are. They must be taught an openness that allows for them to discuss omfortably moral matters with many types of people in order to gain a clearer picture of the world. By honing reasoning skills one can better evaluate ethical and moral statements or judgments (Gigerenzer & Goldstein, 1996) and this will help to describe the negatives and the positives of a situation and ultimately take us a step closer to understanding our world and the various subsets of which it is made up of.References Boyd R. , & Richerson, P. J. (2005). The origin and evolution of cultures. New York: Oxford University Press. Brink, D. (1989). Moral realism and the foundations of ethics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Co smides, L. , & Tooby, J. (2000). Knowing thyself: The evolutionary psychology of moral reasoning and moral sentiments. Unpublished manuscript. Gigerenzer, G. (2004). Fast and frugal heuristics: The tools of bounded rationality. In D. Koehler & N. Harvey (Eds), Handbook of judgment and decision making (pp. 62-68). Oxford: Blackwell. Haidt, J. , &Joseph, C. (2004). Sexual morality: The cultures and reasons of liberals and conservatives. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 31 191-221. Wright, R. (1994). The moral animal: Why we are the way we are. New York: Pantheon.

An Overview Of Learning Three Theoretical Perspectives Education Essay

There are countless positions on the acquisition procedure, understanding the mechanisms of and our apprehension of larning as theory and the practical application of methodological analysis has evolved well over clip. Each theory contributes to our apprehension of how scholars integrate information and experiences from their environment. This has deductions for single growing and besides for institutional policy and pattern. In this paper I will reexamine three theoretical positions on acquisition, viz. the Constructivist/Cognitivist position, the Phenomenographic position, and the Socio-cultural position, I will depict the salient characteristics and features of each theory, and compare the similarities and differences across positions. This will include a treatment of how learners entree information, make sense of that information, and act on it in deliberate and purposeful ways as a agency of prosecuting with the universe. From there I will look into what these larning theories emphasize or give relevancy to the constructs of context, significance, and experience. The assorted positions each have something to state about the relationship between context, significance, and experience as they relate to acquisition, nevertheless the importance of these nucleus constructs differs in how each theory conceptualizes acquisition, and the importance of the function of context, significance, and experience. Finally, I will reason with illustrations that bring these positions to life in my mundane experience, and I will adhere these theories together within a cohesive apprehension of acquisition and instruction as it relates to the interrelatedness of the constructs of intrinsic motive, fluctuation, and transportation.Three theoretical positions on larningThere are legion theories of acquisition, each stressing a peculiar characteristic of the learning experience. Assorted theories of larning besides depict larning in different ways depending on the point of view of the perceiver. Each theory emphasizes thoughts related to context, significance, and experience in different ways as they relate to acquisition, both from the position of the scholar and from the instructor/teacher/coach/mentor.Constructivist/Cognitivist Perspectiveâ€Å" Objectivity is the psychotic belief that observations could bemade without an perceiver † ( von Foerster, 1995, pg. 5 )The Constructivist theoretical orientation holds that cognition is acquired experientially, is mediated by our anterior apprehension, and is based on the belief that we learn by making instead than detecting, and that cognition is built upon old acquisition. â€Å" The indispensable nucleus of constructivism is that scholars actively construct their ain cognition and intending from their experiences ( Doolittle, pg 1 ) Piaget was chiefly concerned with cognitive buildings that occurred as a consequence of interactions with†¦ Constructivism emerged from early surveies of acquisition, behavior, and depth psychology, and the behavioral point of views of Watson, along with Kohler and Koffka ‘s Gestalt psychological science. ( Tools pg. 7 ) Constructivism as theoretical apprehension exists along a continuum from â€Å" weak † to â€Å" strong † signifiers constructivism This is an adaptative procedure whereby behaviors evolve to run into the altering demands of the environment, and knowledge serves to makes sense of subjective experience. ( Doolittle, 1999, 1 ) Constructivism emerged from schools of behaviorism and objectivism, which held that there was a cognizable nonsubjective world that existed independent of the person. Constructivism takes the position that meaningful personal experience is the footing of cognition and acquisition. Persons construct intending within a context of personal experience that is rooted in linguistic communication, civilization, and the societal experiences of each person. There can be no objectively verifiable truth or cognition within constructivism, as each single brings a alone position grounded in their ain old cognizing. Much of this cognition is silent and resides in the inexplicit memory of the scholar, but it exerts its influence and acts as a filter through which the person â€Å" sees † new information and relates it to their apprehension of the universe. Knowledge and therefore acquisition is constructed within the head of the person. Constructivism rejects the impression of an nonsubjective and cognizable world independent of the perceiver, and holds that cognition of the universe is constructed through the active cognitizing on the portion of persons. Constructivism rejects the impression of an oberver-independent universe in favor of cognition reflecting the subjective worlds of the perceiver. ( Glaserfeld, 1989, p. 3 ) Knowledge is non a representation of world, but alternatively a â€Å" aggregation of conceptual constructions that turn out to be adapted or, as I would manner, feasible within the cognizing topic ‘s scope of experience. ( Glaserfeld, 1989, p. 4 ) Within Cognitive constructivism ( account of strategy theory, accomodation, assimilation ) . Cognitive constructivism adheres to theoretical accounts of cognition building that consider the function of memory, cognitive concepts, and scheme without sing to the full the subjective nature of cognition as occupant within the head of the topic. Knowledge in this sense implies an internal representation that accurately reflects an observer-independent external world. ( Doolittle, 1999, 2 ) Extremist constructivism differs from cognitive constructivism by progressing the thought that larning is an adaptative procedure, and that it is observer-dependent and resides in a fluid and dynamic knowledge that considers the subjective experience of cognition building. Extremist constructivism, like societal constructivism, besides accepts societal interactions as informing cognition building. Social constructivism takes the position that societal interactions contribute to cognize, and views the societal and cultural context as grounding cognition â€Å" to a specific clip and topographic point. ( doolittle pg 4 ) These assorted positions exist on a continuum, nevertheless the most cardinal apprehensions are shared. We all hold memories of old experiences ; those collected memories and experiences, both tacit and explicit, go the lens through which we view our current unfolding world. Emerging grounds within the kingdom of neuroscience and interpersonal neurobiology may foretell farther homogenisation of constructivist doctrine and apprehension. Interpersonal neurobiology views the encephalon as a societal organ built through experience. This insight displacements Cognitive Constructivism farther along the continuum in the way of extremist and societal constructivism by imparting back uping grounds to the two staying epistemic dogmas, viz. that â€Å" knowledge organizes and makes sense of one ‘s experience, and that â€Å" knowing has roots in both biological/neurological building, and societal, cultural, and language-based interactions. † ( Doolittle, 1999 ) Learning is transactional, with experience act uponing cognitive building and the fictile cognitive buildings act uponing o ur experience in a dichotomy of experience and subjective world. As Carr provinces, â€Å" †¦ the turning organic structure of grounds makes clear that the memory inside our caputs is the merchandise of an inordinately complex natural procedure that is, at every blink of an eye, finely tuned to the alone environment in which each of us lives and the alone forms of experiences that each of us goes through. † ( Carr, 2010, P. ? ? ) Carr recounts some of the current research on memory and experience, and expands on the thought that our encephalon construction continuously changes with experience ; encephalon malleability, the turning and pruning of synaptic connexions over clip, changes our very memories and our remembrances of experience based on new experiences. ( Carr, 2010, p. 190 ) Researcher Kobi Rosenblum farther describes how memory, which in a sense is our recalled experience, can be a fictile and traveling mark. As he explains, â€Å" ..the human encephalon continues to treat information long after it is received, and the quality of memories depends on how the information is processed. † ( Carr, 2010, p. 191 )Meaning within Cognitivist/Constructivist PerspectiveMeaning as significance for each position, but it is built-in to an apprehension of constructivism. Meaning is cardinal to the intentionality of scholars ; relevancy and significance enhance a scholar ‘s ability to associate with th eir universe. It besides relates to constructs of motive as it relates to a scholars sense of bureau and battle with their experience, ad it highlights the importance of civilization and linguistic communication as societal go-betweens of larning? ? ? ? â€Å" The importance of these memory mechanisms to the development of cognitive psychological science is that, one time understood, they make it really clear that a individual ‘s ability to retrieve points is improved if the points are meaningfully related to each other or to the individual ‘s bing cognition. The cardinal word here is meaningful. â€Å" Wynn pg.4 â€Å" What is meaningful to people is determined by what they can retrieve of what they have already learned † . Wynn pg 4 Opportunities for larning within a constructivist model occur most readily when what is being learned has relevancy or high emotional valency for the scholar ; in other words when information or experiences are meaningful. In order for larning to be meaningful it should be relatable to old cognition and experience. This building-block theoretical account of cognition and experience is wholly consistent with a scholar as meaning-maker. The deductions for learning and educational teaching method are that undertakings that have significance and relevancy tend to be of greater intrinsic involvement to scholars. Research on the experience of larning speaks to the importance of significance as it relates to knowledge building, and speaks of the importance of liberty, bureau, pick, and coaction in driving our instrinsic motivational desires to prosecute in meaningful undertakings, retrieve and remember information, self-organize, and be funny. A larning context rich in significance is important.Context within Cognitivist/Constructivist PositionsLearning occurs most successfully at the intersection of a scholar ‘s old cognition of the universe and the experience of socially mediated interactions with others, and is influenced by all accumulated societal and cultural experiences. ( Bodrova & A ; Leong, 2007, p. 9 ) The context for larning resides within the experience and imaginativeness of the scholar, and is rooted in anterior experience and is mediated by teachers/facilitators and the ecological scene or context. Within this larning context, Feuerstein describes the function of mediation. â€Å" The go-between creates in a individual an attack, a signifier of mention, a desire to understand phenomena, a demand to happen order in them, to understand the order that is revealed, and to make it for oneself. † ( Feuerstein, Feuerstein, & A ; Falik, 2010, p. 37 ) Mediators can take many signifiers, but they portion in common an ability to potentiate a scholar ‘s ability to profit from larning experiences. In the absence of a go-between, even in instances where persons get cognition, they may non â€Å" understand its significance. † ( Feuerstein et al. , 2010, p. 37 )Experience within Cognitivist/Constructivist PositionsAs scholars construct their ain experiential world within a societal and cultural context, the dyadic interactions that unfold connote a grade of coaction and battle with acquisition that is per se motivated by a meaningful context within which larning occurs/unf olds. Collaborative acquisition is by its nature socially constructed acquisition, where the involvement of scholars is cardinal, meaningful, and contextual. Decontextualized acquisition by contrast deficiencies a sense of connexion to the experience of acquisition. Prior experiences of larning are diminished when there is no meaningful context, and reliable experiential acquisition suffers. When pick around construction and content is collaboratively negotiated, scholars are granted a degree of liberty around how and what they learn, and experiences that are meaningful topographic point larning within a context more suited to the acquisition manner, ends, and precedences of the scholar. Kohn emphasizes these conditions of coaction, content, and pick, as making the conditions necessary for reliable and per se motivated larning to emerge. ( Kohn, ? ? ? )Phenomenograpy/Variation Theoryâ€Å" There is no larning without understanding. And there is nounderstanding without fluctuation. † ( Marton, Trigwell, 2000 )The theory of phenomenography is connected with the survey of human experience, peculiarly as it relates to educational research. Phenomenography examines believing and larning within the context of educational research, and seeks apprehension of â€Å" the different ways in which people experience, interpret, understand, perceive, or gestate a phenomenon, or certain facet of world. † ( Orgill, ? ? ? ? ) Marton defines phenomenography as â€Å" a qualitative research methodological analysis, within the interpretivist paradigm, that investigates the qualitatively different ways in which people experience something or believe about something † ( Marton, 1986 ) . One of the cardinal epistemic dogmas? ? ? related to Phenomenographic theory relates to constructs of fluctuation, understanding, and transportation. Marton postulates that in order for larning to happen, â€Å" †¦ at that place must needfully be a form of fluctuation nowadays to see, and this form must be experienced † . ( Marton, fluctuation, pg.1 ) . In order for larning to happen, scholars must see a broad scope of fluctuation in experience, with sameness or similarity lending small to our apprehension of experience. Variation and difference create a broader context for understanding experience, and besides spread out our repertory when meeting fresh state of affairss or fortunes. This transportation of acquisition is built-in to variation theory and a cardinal underpinning of phenomenography. Experiencing difference or fluctuation may be likened to experiences of cognitive disagreement within constructivist theoretical accounts of acquisition, where an single experiences disagreement and a disturbance and must set their construct of this new information within their existing paradigm. How we categorize, makes sens e of, or place with that difference relates to our understanding accomplishments. Discernment allows a topic to see or feel an experience â€Å" against the background of his or her old experiences of something more or less different. † ( Marton, pg.386 ) . In kernel, as topics experience greater fluctuation they become more attuned to progressively subtle differences between the â€Å" physical, cultural, symbolic, or animal universe † that they inhabit. ( Marton, pg 386 ) Every phenomenon that is experienced merely in contrast to jump experiences of the same phenomenon ( marton, pg 387 ) The deductions for teaching method centre on the use of the objects of fluctuation in order for scholars to see fluctuation, go expert at discerning, and reassign larning across state of affairss. â€Å" Excellence in instruction has really much to make with what facets of the object of larning are subjected to fluctuation, and what facets of the object are capable to fluctuation at the same time. † ( Marton, pg. 391 ) Subjects learn to pull off freshness as a consequence of holding experienced freshness through fluctuation. ( Marton, pg. 394 ) . Transportation is concerned with how â€Å" what is learned in one state of affairs affects or influences what the scholar is capable of making in another situation. â€Å" ( Marton, pg. 499 )Meaning within Phenomenographic/Variation Theory PerspectiveContext within Phenomenographic/Variation Theory PerspectiveA construct that illuminates thoughts of context within the phenomenographic position relates to constructs of located acqui sition. Situated in this case â€Å" refers to what surrounds the learning event ; that is, to the socially constructed life-world in which a peculiar case of larning occurs. † ( Sameness in transportation, pg. 511 ) Sameness and difference in larning and experience are acknowledged, nevertheless â€Å" †¦ the extent to which we can do usage of something we have learned in one state of affairs to manage another state of affairs is a mom Decision Learning is non merely geting new information and hive awaying it on top of the information we already have. It involves run intoing something unexpected ( what? ? ? might depict as a disturbance ) , something that can non be easy explained by those theories or apprehensions we have already developed. To decide that struggle we have to alter what we antecedently believed ( kohn, pg 187? ? ) This account is the tie that binds constructivism, fluctuation, theory and strategy theory to societal acquisition, along with thoughts of motive and personal bureau.

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